n. a direction, quarter (especiallyin fine compositi or 'at the end of a compound'seediṅ-m-; mfn.turning or turned towards, facing seeadho-m-also ind(am-).seeprān-mukham-)
mf(ī-,rarely ā-)n. with the face directed towards, turned towards, facing (with accusativedative casegenitive case;or in fine compositi or 'at the end of a compound')
mf(ī-,rarely ā-)n. (in fine compositi or 'at the end of a compound') going near, approaching (as yauvanābhimukhī-,"approaching puberty, marriageable" )
ind. towards (often used in a hostile manner ), in the direction of, in front or presence of, near to (accusativegenitive case;or in fine compositi or 'at the end of a compound')
mf(ī-)n. (in fine compositi or 'at the end of a compound') one who turn his face away, indifferent to (khī-bhū-,to turn away from) (also with locative case)
mfn. one whose face (or whose look) confers prosperity etc. (only used in the vocative case or in the Nominal verb with the meaning of a 2nd Persian ="good or gentle sir" plural"good people"; according to to a prince is so to be addressed by the inferior characters in plays;in the it is a term of address to inferior persons).
m. plural (with or scilicetpitaras-;also khaḥ pitṛ-gaṇah-) a class of deceased ancestors to whom a particularśrāddha-, is offered (according to some the 3 ancestors preceding the great-grandfather) etc.
mfn. (generally in fine compositi or 'at the end of a compound'; f(ā-).) having as foremost or chief, headed or preceded by, accompanied by or with ([ seeprīti-p-; vasiṣṭhap-])
mf(ī-rarely ā-)n. facing, fronting, confronting, being face to face or in front of or opposite to (genitive case or in fine compositi or 'at the end of a compound' or in the beginning of a compound), present, before the eyes etc.
mf(ī-)n. "having a face towards either way","two-faced", a pregnant female (so called because the embryo has its face turned in an opposite direction to that of the mother)
मुखम् [खन् अच् डित् धातोः पूर्वं मुट् च cf. Uṇ.5.2] 1 The mouth (fig. also); प्रजासृजा यतः खातं तस्मादाहुर्मुखं बुधाः; ब्राह्मणो$स्य मुखमासीत् Ṛv.1.9.12; सभ्रूभङ्गं मुखमिव Me.24; त्वं मम मुखं भव V.1 'be my mouth or spokesman'. -2 The face, countenance; परिवृत्तार्धमुखी मयाद्य दृष्टा V.1.17; नियमक्षाममुखी धृतैकवेणिः Ś.7.21; so चन्द्रमुखी, मुखचन्द्रः &c; ओष्ठौ च दन्तमूलानि दन्ता जिह्वा च तालु च । गलो गलादि सकलं सप्ताङ्गं मुखमुच्यते ॥ -3 The snout or muzzle (of any animal). -4 The front, van, forepart; head, top; (लोचने) हरति मे हरिवाहनदिङ्मुखम् V.3.6. -5 The tip, point, barb (of an arrow), head; पुरारि- मप्राप्तमुखः शिलीमुखः Ku.5.54; R.3.57. -6 The edge or sharp point (of any instrument). -7 A teat, nipple; मध्ये यथा श्याममुखस्य तस्य मृणालसूत्रान्तरमप्य- लभ्यम् Ku.1.4; R.3.8. -8 The beak or bill of a bird. -9 A direction, quarter; as in अन्तर्मुख. -1 Opening, entrance, mouth; नीवाराः शुकगर्भकोटरमुखभ्रष्टास्तरूणामधः Ś.1.14; नदीमुखेनेव समुद्रमाविशत् R.3.28; Ku.1.8. -11 An entrance to a house, a door, passage. -12 Beginning, commencement; सखीजनोद्वीक्षणकौमुदीमुखम् R.3.1; दिनमुखानि रविर्हिमनिग्रहैर्विमलयन् मलयं नगमत्यजत् 9.25;5.76; Ghaṭ.2. -13 Introduction. -14 The chief, the principal or prominent (at the end of comp. in this sense); बन्धोन्मुक्त्यै खलु मखमुखान् कुर्वते कर्मपाशान् Bv.4.21; so इन्द्रमुखा देवाः &c. -15 The surface or upper side. -16 A means. -17 A source, cause, occasion. -18 Utterance; as in मुखसुख; speaking, speech, tongue; आत्मनो मुखदोषेण बध्यन्ते शुकसारिकाः Pt.4.44. -19 The Vedas, scripture. -2 (In Rhet.) The original cause or source of the action in a drama. -21 The first term in a progression (in alg.). -22 The side opposite to the base of a figure (in geom.). -Comp. -अग्निः 1 a forest conflagration. -2 a sort of goblin with a face of fire. -3 the consecrated or sacrificial fire. -4 fire put into the mouth of a corpse at the time of lighting the funeral pile. -5 a Brāhmaṇa. -अनिलः, -उच्छ्वासः breath. -अस्त्रः a crab. -आकारः look, mien, appearance. -आक्षेपः 1 an invective. -2 the act of throwing up soil with the ploughshare. -आसवः nectar of the lips. -आस्रवः, -स्रावः spittle, saliva. -आस्वादः kissing the mouth; Y. -इन्दुः a moon-like face, i. e. a round lovely face. -उच्छ्वासः breath. -उल्का a forest-conflagration. -कमलम् a lotuslike face. -खुरः a tooth. -गन्धकः an onion. -गोपनम् concealment of the face; अवधीरितमुखमण्डलमुखगोपनं किमिति Udb. -ग्रहणम् kissing the mouth. -घण्टा f. hurraying of women in festivities. -चन्द्रः a moon-like face. -चपल a. talkative, garrulous. -चपेटिका a slap on the face. -चालिः an introductory dance; -चीरिः f. the tongue. -चूर्णम् scented powder to smear the face with; छविकरं मुखचूर्णमृतुश्रियः R.9.45. -जः 1 a Brāhmaṇa. -2 a tooth. -जाहम् the root of the mouth. -दूषणः an onion. -दूषिका an eruption disfiguring the face. -दोषः fault of the tongue; आत्मनो मुखदोषेण बध्यन्ते शुकसारिकाः Pt.4.44. -निरीक्षकः a lazy fellow, an idler. -निवासिनी an epithet of Sarasvatī. -पटः a veil; कुर्वन् कामं क्षणमुखपट- प्रीतिमैरावतस्य Me.64. -पाकः inflammation of the mouth; द्राक्षाविपाकसमये मुखपाको भवति काकानाम् Udb. -पिण्डः a mouthful of food; cf. को न याति वशं लोके मुखपिण्डेन पूरितः Bh.2.118. -पुष्पकम् a kind of ornament. -पूरणम् 1 filling the mouth. -2 a mouthful of water, a mouthful in general. -प्रसादः a pleased countenance, graciousness of aspect. -प्रसाधनम् dacorating the face. -प्रियः an orange. (-यम्) cloves. -प्रेक्ष a. observing or watching the face. -फुल्लकम् a kind of ornament. -बन्धः a preface, an introduction. -बन्धनम् 1 a preface. -2 a lid, cover. -भगा (a woman) who suffers her mouth to be used as a vulva. -भङ्गः 1 a blow on the face. -2 wry face, grimace. -भूषणम् a preparation of betel; see ताम्बूल. -भेदः 1 distortion of the face. -2 gaping. -मण़्डनकः a kind of tree (तिलक). -मण्डलम् the (round) face. -मधु a. honey-mouthed, sweet-lipped. -माधुर्यम् a particular disease of the phlegm. -मारुतः breath. -मार्जनम् washing the face. -मुद्रा silence; यापदृष्टिरपि या मुखमुद्रा N.5.12. -मोदः Hyperanthera Moringa (Mar. शेवगा). -यन्त्रणम् the bit of a bridle. -रज्जुः f. the bridle of a horse. -रसः speech, talk; मधुरमुखरसामृतकलया चान्तस्तापमनघार्हसि क्षमयितुम् Bhag.6.9.41. -रागः the colour or complexion of the face; ददृशुर्विस्मितास्तस्य मुखरागं समं जनाः R.12.8;17.31; तव खलु मुखरागो यत्र भेदं प्रयातः Śi.11.31. -रेखा feature, mien, air. -रोगः a disease of the mouth or face. -लाङ्गलः a hog. -लेपः 1 anointing the face or upper side (of a drum); मृदङ्गो मुखलेपेन करोति मुखरध्वनिम् Bh. 2.118. -2 a disease of the phlegmatic humour. -वल्लभः the pomegranate tree. -वस्त्रिका a piece of fine cloth (net) held before the face (Mar. बुरखा). -वाद्यम् 1 an instrument of music sounded with the mouth, any wind-instrument. -2 a sound made with the mouth; (Mar. बोंब). -वासः, -वासनम् a perfume used to scent breath. -विलुण्ठिका a she-goat. -विषमः one of the
ways of embezzlement namely misrepresentation of the source of income; Kau. A.2.8. -विष्ठा a species of cockroach. -वैरस्यम् bad taste in the mouth. -व्यादानम् gaping, yawning. -शफ a. abusive, foul-mouthed, scurrilous. -शाला entrance-hall, vestibule. -शुद्धिः f. washing or purifying the mouth. -शृङ्गः a rhinoceros. -शेषः an epithet of Rāhu. -शोधन a. 1 cleansing the mouth. -2 pungent, sharp. (-नः) the sharp flavour, pungency. (-नम्) 1 cleansing the mouth. -2 cinnamon. -शोधिन् m. the citron tree. -शोषः dryness of the mouth. -श्रीः f. 'beauty of countenance', a lovely face. -संदंशः forceps. -संधिः m. A kind of fugue; S. D. 6th Parichcheda. -संभवः a Brāhmaṇa. -सुखम् facility of pronunciation, phonetic ease. -सुरम् the nectar of the lips (अधरामृत). -स्रावः saliva. -हासः cheerfulness or liveliness of countenance; सकमलमुखहासं वीक्षितः पद्मिनीभिः Śi.11.47.
मुखरयति Den. P. 1 To make resonant or noisy, cause to sound or echo. -2 To make (one) talk or speak; अत एव शुश्रूषा मां मुखरयति Mu.3. -3 To notify, declare, announce.
अभिमुख a. (-खी f.) [अभिगतं मुखं यस्य अभेर्मुखम् P.VI.2. 185] 1 With the face turned or directed towards, in the direction of, towards, turned towards, facing; अभिमुखे मयि संहृतमीक्षितम् Ś.2.12. ˚खा शाला Sk.; गच्छन्नभिमुखो वह्नौ नाशं याति पतङ्गवत् Pt.1.237; with the acc.; राजानमेवाभि- मुखा निषेदुः; पम्पामभिमुखो ययौ Rām.; Bg.11.28; K.264; sometimes with dat., or gen. or loc.; आश्रमायाभिमुखा बभूवुः Mb.; यस्ते तिष्ठेदभिमुखे रणे Rām.; मथ्यभिमुखीभूय Dk. 124; also in comp. शकुन्तलाभिमुखो भूत्वा Ś. 1 turning towards Ś.; Ku.3.75,7.9. -2 Coming or going near, approaching, near or close at hand; अभिमुखीष्विव वाञ्छित- सुद्धिषु व्रजति निर्वृतिमेकपदे मनः V.2.9.; यौवनाभिमुखी संजज्ञे Pt.4; R.17.4. -3 Disposed or intending to, inclined to; ready for, about (to do something), in comp.; चन्द्रापीडाभिमुखहृदया K.198,233; अस्ताभिमुखे सूर्ये Mu.4.19; प्रसादाभिमुखो वेधाः प्रत्युवाच दिवौकसः Ku.2.16;5.6; U.7.4, Māl.1.13; कर्मण्यभिमुखेन स्थेयम् Dk.89; अनभिमुखः सुखानाभ् K.45; प्रातः प्रयाणाभिमुखाय तस्मै R.5.29; निद्रा चिरेण नयना- भिमुखी वभूव 5.64; sometimes as first member of comp. in this sense; फलमभिमुखपाकं राजजम्बूद्रुमस्य; V.4.27. -4 Favourable, friendly or favourably disposed; आनीय झटिति घटयति विधिरभिमतमभिमुखीभूतः Ratn.1.5. -5 Taking one's part, nearly related to. -6 With the face turned upwards. -खः Forepart (अग्र); तस्येषुपाताभिमुखं (विसृज्य) Bhāg.9.6.18. -खी One of the 1 earths according to Buddhists. -खम्, -खे ind. Towards, in the direction of, facing, in front or presence of, near to; with acc., gen. or in comp. or by itself; स दीप्त इव कालाग्निर्जज्वालाभिमुखं खगम् Rām.5.67.12. आसीताभिमुखं गुरोः Ms.2.193; तिष्ठन्मुनेरभिमुखं स विकीर्णधाम्नः Ki.2.59; Śi.13.2; Ki.6. 46; नेपथ्याभिमुखमवलोक्य Ś.1; स पुराभिमुखं प्रतस्थे Pt.3; Me. 7; कर्णं ददात्यभिमुखं मयि भाषमाणे Ś.1.3; also at the beginning of comp.; अभिमुखनिहतस्य Bh.2.112 killed in the front ranks of battle.
आमुखम् 1 Commencement. -2 (In dramas) A prologue, prelude (प्रस्तावना); (every Sanskrit play is introduced by आमुख. It is thus defined in S. D. नटी विदू- षको वा$पि पारिपार्श्वक एव वा । सूत्रधारेण सहिताः संलापं यत्र कुर्वते ॥ चित्रैर्वाक्यैः स्वकार्योत्थैः प्रस्तुताक्षेपिभिर्मिथः । आमुखं तत्तु विज्ञेयं नाम्ना प्रस्तावना$पि सा ॥ 287. -खम् ind. To the face.
उन्मुख a. (-खी f.) [उद्-ऊर्ध्वं मुखं यस्य] 1 Raising the face, looking up; ˚दर्शन looking upwards; अद्रेः शृङ्गं हरति पवनः किंस्विदित्युन्मुखीभिः Me.14,15; R.1.39,11.26; आश्रम˚ 1.53. -2 Ready, intent on, on the point of, about to, prepared for; तमरण्यसमाश्रयोन्मुखम् R.8.12 about to retire to the woods; 16.9,3.12; उदयोन्मुख- चन्द्रिका M.5.7; भेदोन्मुखम् V.2.7; Ku.6.48. -3 Eager, waiting for, expecting, looking up to; तस्मिन् संयमिनामाद्ये जाते परिणयोन्मुखे Ku.6.34; लक्ष्मीरिव गुणोंन्मुखी R.12.26,6. 21,11.23. -4 Sounding, speaking or making a sound; परभृतोन्मुखी Ku.6.2 speaking through the cuckoo. -5 Coming from the mouth (मुखोत्पन्न); यस्तून्मुखत्वाद्वर्णानां मुख्यो$भूद् ब्राह्मणो गुरुः Bhāg.3.6.3.
प्रमुख a. 1 Facing, turning the face towards. -2 Chief, principal, foremost, first. -3 Respectable, honourable. -4 (At the end of comp.) (a) Headed by, having as chief or at the head; वासुकिप्रमुखाः Ku. 2.38. (b) Accompanied with; प्रीतिप्रमुखवचनं स्वागतं व्याजहार Me.4. -खः 1 A respectable man. -2 A heap, multitude. -3 The tree called Punnāga. -खम् 1 The mouth. -2 The beginning of a chapter or section. -3 The time being, the present. (प्रमुखतस् and प्रमुखे are used adverbially in the sense of 'in front of', 'before', 'opposite to'; भीष्मद्रोणप्रमुखतः सर्वेषां च महीक्षिताम् Bg.1.25; Ś.7.22.).
संमुख a. (-खा or -खी f.), -संमुखीन a. 1 Facing, fronting, face to face, opposite, confronting; कामं न तिष्ठति मदाननसंमुखी सा Ś.1.31; R.15.17; Śi.1.86. -2 Encountering, meeting. -3 Disposed to. -4 Looking or directed towards. -5 Propitious, favourable; त्रयो$प्य- न्यायतः सिद्धाः संमुखे कर्मणि स्थिते Pt.5.91. -6 Fit, suitable. -खम्, -खे ind. In front of, opposite to, before, in the presense of; न बभूव तदा कश्चिद्युयुत्सोरस्य संमुखे Rām. 7.28.5.
n. (--°ree; a. â, î) mouth; jaws; face; snout, muzzle (of an animal), beak (of a bird); direction, quarter; spout (of a vessel: rare); mouth, opening, entrance, into (g. or --°ree;); forepart, tip, point, head (of an arrow); edge (of a sharp instrument); surface, top, upper side; head, chief; beginning; original cause of the action of a drama; source, occa sion, of (g., --°ree;); means; --°ree; a. having in the or as a mouth; having a (pale, etc., attribu tive a.) face; having a face like (e. g. goat faced); having a face covered with or show ing (e.g. tears, frowns, anger); facing or looking towards (-m, ad.); having as a be ginning, beginning with.
pp. being in the mouth or face; being in front; -grahana, n. kissing the mouth; -kandra, m. moon-like face; -kandramas, m. id.; -kapala, a. talkative, garrulous; -kapetikâ, f. slap in the face; -kâpalya, n. garrulousness; -kkhavi, f. colour of the face, complexion; -ga, m. (born from the mouth of Brahman), Brâhman; -tás, ad. from, at, in, or by the mouth; in the face; in front, forward, from the front; before (g.); -pa&ndot;kaga, m. lotus-face; -pata, m. veil; -pinda, m. mouthful of food; -priya, a. pleasant in the mouth; -bandhana, n. in troduction, preface; -bha&ndot;ga, m. slap in the face, with (--°ree;); distorted face, grimace; -bha&ndot;gî, f. distortion of the face; -bheda, m. id.; -mandala, n. face; -mâtra, a. (î) reaching to the mouth; -mâruta, m. breath (of the mouth); -mudrana, n. closing the mouth of (g.); -mudrâ, f.distortion of the face or sealing of the lips; -motana, n. smacking of the lips.
a. talkative, loquacious (also of birds and bees); tinkling (anklets etc.), sounding; --°ree;, eloquent or resonant with, expressive of, pouring forth; m. ring leader, chief: -ka, m. N. of a rogue; -tâ, f. talkativeness, loquaciousness.
m. mouth-disease; -lepa, m. besmearing the mouth; upper side of a drum; -vat, a. having a mouth; -varna, m. colour of the face, complexion; -vâsa, m. mouth-perfume (used to scent the breath); -vyâdâna, n. opening the mouth, yawn; -sasin, m. moon-like face; -suddhi, f. cleans ing of the mouth; -sesha, a. having only his face or head left; m. ep. of Râhu; -sodhana, a. pungent; n. cleansing the mouth;-sosha, m. dryness of the mouth; -srî, f. beauty of countenance, lovely face; -sukha, n. facility of pronunciation; -srâva, m. flow of saliva.
m. Fire-mouth, N. of a bug; -varna, a. of the colour of fire; red-hot; -velâ, f. time of kindling the sacred fire; afternoon; -sarana, n. sacred fireplace.
a. (î) facing, oppo site (ac., d., g., --°ree;); favourable to (in., g.); imminent; --°ree;, on the verge of, -point of, car ing for: °ree;--, ad. in front; -m, ad. id.; towards, against, opposite(ac., g., --°ree;); lc. opposite (g., --°ree;).
a. (î) having the face upturned; upward; looking up towards; longing for; expecting; ready for, about to (--°ree;): -m, ad. upwards; -tâ, f. desire, expect ancy: -darsana, n. upward gaze.
a. (î) having one's face averted; turning one's back upon (g.), fleeing from (ab.); averted (gaze); averse from, not caring for, avoiding, indifferent to (prati, g., lc., --°ree;); adverse: -tâ, f. aversion of the face; -tva, n. aversion, to (--°ree;); î-bhû, avert the face, flee; not care for (g.); become adverse (fate).
a. turned or flowing eastward; -½abhisheká, m. prelimin ary anointment; -½abhyâsa, m. repetition of something previous: in. anew; -½ambudhi, m. eastern ocean.
a. (î, sts. â) confronting, facing (g., --°ree;); favourable, to any one (g.), propitious (fortune); intent on (lc., --°ree;): -m, ad. (come etc.) towards; (draw) to (oneself, âtmanah); (look) intoone's face; face to face; opposite, in the presence of (g.); lc. oppo site, before, in front or the presence of (g.): w. bhû, oppose any one (g.); w. sthâ, look any one (g.) in the face; °ree;--, towards; into one's face; -mukhî-kri, place opposite, make one's aim; -mukhîna, a. confronting, facing, opposite; favourable to (g.): -tva, n. condi tion of facing; presence; -mukhî-bhû, post oneself opposite; -mugdham, (pp.) ad. clandestinely; -mûdha,pp. √ muh: -tâ, f., -tva, n. dazed condition; -mûrkhana, n. congealment, densification, accumulation; -melana, n. meeting together, mixture, union; -mohá, m. stupefaction, swoon; infatuation, delusion; -mohana, a.(î) deluding, infatu ating; m. N. of one of the arrows of the god of love; n. leading astray, deluding, infatu ating; a certain mythical missile.
The exact metal denoted by this word when used by
itself, as always in the Rigveda, is uncertain. As favouring the sense of ‘ bronze ’ rather than that of ‘ iron ’ may perhaps be cited with Zimmer the fact that Agni is called ayo-damstra,‘with teeth of Ayas,’with reference to the colour of his flames, and that the car-seat of Mitra and Varuna is called ayah-sthūna, ‘with pillars of Ayas ’ at the setting of the sun. Moreover, in the Vājasaneyi Samhitā, Ayas is enumerated in a list of six metals: gold (hiranya), Ayas, Syāma, Loha, lead (sīsa), tin (trapu). Here śyāma (‘ swarthy ’) and loha (‘ red ’) must mean ‘iron’ and ‘copper’ respectively; ayas would therefore seem to mean ‘bronze.’ In many passages in the Atharvaveda and other books, the Ayas is divided into two species—the śyāma (* iron ’) and the lohita (‘ copper’ or * bronze ’). In the Satapatha Brāhmana a distinction is drawn between Ayas and lohāyasa, which may either be a distinction between iron and copper as understood by Eggeling, or between copper and bronze as held by Schrader. In one passage of the Atharvaveda, the sense of iron seems certain. Possibly, too, the arrow of the Rigveda, which had a tip of Ayas (yasyā ayo mukham), was pointed with iron. Copper, however, is conceivable, and bronze quite likely. Iron is called śyāma ayas or śyāma alone. See also Kārsnāyasa. Copper is Lohāyasa or Lohitāyasa. The smelting (dhmā ‘ to blow ’) of the metal is frequently referred to. The Satapatha Brāhmana states that if ‘ well smelted ’ (bahu-dhmātam) it is like gold, referring evidently to bronze. A heater of Ayas is mentioned in the Vājasaneyi Samhitā, and bowls of Ayas are also spoken of.
Is the usual name for ‘arrow’ from the Rigveda onwards. Other names are Sarya, Sārī, and Bāna. In the hymn of the Rigveda, which gives a catalogue of armour, two kinds of arrows are distinctly referred to : the one is poisoned (ālāktā), and has a head of horn (ruru-śīrsnī); the other is copper-, bronze-, or iron-headed (ayo-mukham). Poisoned (1digdhā) arrows are also referred to in the Atharvaveda. The arrows were feathered. The parts of an arrow are enumerated in the Atharvaveda as the shaft (śalya), the feather-socket (parna-dhi), the point (śrñga), the neck of the point in which the shaft is fixed (kulmala), and the Apaskambha and Apāstha, which are of more doubtful significance. In the Aitareya Brāhmana6 the parts of an arrow are given as the point (anīka), the śalya, tejana, and the feathers (parnani), where śalya and tejana must apparently mean the upper and lower parts of the shaft, since it is reasonable to suppose that the arrow is described as a whole consecutively. So in the Atharvaveda the arrow of Kāma is described as having feathers, a shaft (śalya), and a firm fastening (kulmala). The arrow was shot from the ear, and so is described in the Rigveda as ‘ having the ear for its place of birth.
Is a word of obscure origin and derivation. The Indian interpreters already show a great divergence of opinion as to its primary meaning. The śatapatha Brāhmana resolves it into na-ksatra (‘ no power ’), explaining it by a legend. The Nirukta refers it to the root naks, ‘obtain/ following the Taittirīya Brāhmana. Aufrecht and Weber derived it from nakta-tra, ‘ guardian of night/ and more recently the derivation from nak-ksatra, ‘ having rule over night/ seems to be gaining acceptance. The generic meaning of the word therefore seems to be ‘star/ The Naksatras as Stars in the Rigveda and Later.—The sense of star ’ appears to be adequate for all or nearly all the passages in which Naksatra occurs in the Rigveda. The same sense occurs in the later Samhitās also : the sun and the Naksatras are mentioned together, or the sun, the moon, and the Naksatras, or the moon and the Naksatras, or the Naksatras alone; but there is no necessity to attribute to the word the sense of lunar mansion ’ in these passages. On the other hand, the names of at least three of the Naksatras in the later sense occur in the Rigveda. Tisya, however, does not seem to be mentioned as a lunar mansion. With Aghās (plur.) and Arjunī (dual) the case is different: it seems probable that they are the later lunar mansions called Maghās (plur.) and Phālgunī (dual). The names appear to have been deliberately changed in the Rigveda, and it must be remembered that the hymn in which they occur, the wedding hymn of Sūryā, has no claim to great age. Ludwig and Zimmer have seen other references to the Naksatras as 27 in the Rigveda, but these seem most improbable. Nor do the adjectives revatī (£ rich ’) and punarvasīi (‘ bringing wealth again’) in another hymn appear to refer to the Naksatras. The Naksatras as Lunar Mansions.—In several passages of the later Samhitās the connexion of the moon and the Naksatras is conceived of as a marriage union. Thus in the Kāthaka and Taittirīya Samhitās it is expressly stated that Soma was wedded to the mansions, but dwelt only with Rohinī; the others being angry, he had ultimately to undertake to live with them all equally. Weber hence deduced that the Naksatras were regarded as of equal extent, but this is to press the texts unduly, except in the sense of approximate equality. The number of the mansions is not stated as 27 in the story told in the two Samhitās: the Taittīriya has, and the Kāthaka no number; but 27 appears as their number in the list which is found in the Taittirīya Samhitā and elsewhere. The number 28 is much less well attested: in one passage of the Taittirīya Brāhmana Abhijit is practically marked as a new comer, though in a later book, in the Maitrāyanī Samhitā, and in the Atharvaveda list,27 it has found acceptance. It is perfectly possible that 28 is the earlier number, and that Abhijit dropped out because it was faint, or too far north, or because 27 was a more mystic (3x3x3) number: it is significant that the Chinese Sieou and the Arabic Manāzil are 28 in number.28 Weber, however, believes that 27 is the older number in India. The meaning of the number is easily explained when it is remembered that a periodic month occupies something between 27 and 28 days, more nearly the former number. Such a month is in fact recognized in the Lātyāyana and Nidāna Sūtras as consisting of 27 days, 12 months making a year of 324 days, a Naksatra year, or with an intercalary month, a year of 351 days. The Nidāna Sūtra makes an attempt to introduce the Naksatra reckoning into the civil or solar (sāvana) year of 360 days, for it holds that the sun spends 13J• days in each Naksatra (13^x27 = 360). But the month of 27 or 28 days plays no part in the chronological calculations of the Veda. The Names of the Naksatras.—In addition to the two mentioned in the Rigveda, the earlier Atharvaveda gives the names of Jyesthaghnī (the later Jyesthā) and Vicrtau, which are mentioned as in close connexion, and of Revatīs (plural) and Kyttikās. With reference to possible times for the ceremony of the Agnyādhāna, or Maying of the sacred fires/ the Kāthaka Samhitā, the Maitrāyanī Samhitā, and the Taittirīya Brāhmana mention the Naksatras called Krttikās, Rohinī, Phalgunyas, Hasta; the latter Brāhmana adds Punar- vasū, and in an additional remark excludes Pūrve Phālgunī in favour of Uttare Phālgunī. The śatapatha Brāhmana adds Mrgaśīrsa and Citrā as possibilities. On the other hand, Punarvasū is recommended by all authorities as suitable for the Punarādheya, 'relaying of the sacred fires,’ which takes place if the first fire has failed to effect the aim of its existence, the prosperity of the sacrificer. The Kāthaka Samhitā, however, allows Anurādhās also. In the ceremony of the Agnicayana, or 'piling of the fire- altar,’ the bricks are assumed to be equal in number to the Naksatras. The bricks number 756, and they are equated to 27 Naksatras multiplied by 27 secondary Naksatras, reckoned as 720 (instead of 729), with the addition of 36 days, the length of an intercalary month. Nothing can be usefully derived from this piece of priestly nonsense. But in connexion with this ceremony the Yajurveda Samhitās enumerate the 27, The Taittirīya Brāhmana has a list of the Naksatras which agrees generally with the list of the Samhitās. It runs as follows: Kyttikās, Rohinī, Invakās, Bāhū (dual), Tisya, Aśleṣās, Maghās, Pūrve Phālgunī, Uttare Phālgunī, Hasta, Citrā, Nistyā, Viśākhe, Anūrādhās, Rohinī, Mūlabarhanī, Pūrvā Asādhās', Uttarā Asādhās, Sronā, Sravisthās, Satabhisaj, Pūrve Prosthapadās, Uttare Prosthapadās, Revatī, Aśvayujau, Apabharanīs. In a later book, however, the list grows to 28, and the full moon is inserted after number 14, and the new moon after number, as an attempt to bring the Naksatra (lunar) month into accordance with the Sāvana (solar) month of 30 days. The names in this second list are as in the Samhitās with the following exceptions. The seven stars of the Krttikās are named as Ambā, Dulā, Nitatnī, Abhrayantī, Meghayantī, Varsayantī, Cupunīkā, names found also in the Taittirīya and Kāthaka Samhitās. Beside Mrgaśīrsa, Invakās are also mentioned. Then come Ardrā, Punarvasū, Tisya, Aśresās, Maghās (beside which Anaghās, Agadās, and Arun- dhatīs are also mentioned), Phalgunyas (but elsewhere in the dual, Phalgunyau), Phalgunyas, Hasta, Citrā, Nistyā, Viśākhe, Anūrādhās, Jyesthā, Mūla, Asādhās, Asā(jhās, Abhijit, śronā, Sravisthās, Satabhisaj, Prosthapadās, Prosthapadās, Revatī, Aśvayujau, Bharanyas, but also Apabharanīs. Abhijit, which occurs also in an earlier part of the Brāhmana, is perhaps interpolated. But Weber’s argument that Abhijit is out of place in this list because Brāhmana is here mentioned as the 28th Naksatra, loses some force from the fact (of course unknown to him) that the list in the Maitrāyanī Samhitā contains 28 Naksatras, including Abhijit, and adds Brāhmana at the end as another. In another passage the Taittirīya Brāhmana divides the Naksatras into two sets, the Deva Naksatras and the Yama Naksatras, being 1-14 and 15-27 (with the omission of Abhijit) respectively. This division corresponds with one in the third book of the Brāhmana60 where the days of the light half of the month and those of the dark half are equated with the Naksatras. The Brāhmana treats the former series as south, the latter as north; but this has no relation to facts, and can only be regarded as a ritual absurdity. The late nineteenth book of the Atharvaveda contains a list of the Naksatras, including Abhijit. The names here (masc.), Viśākhe, Anurādhā, Jyesthā, Mūla, Pūrvā Asādhās, Uttarā Asādhās, Abhijit, śravana, śravisthās, śatabhisaj, Dvayā Prosthapadā, Revatī, Aśvayujau, Bharanyas. The Position of the Naksatras.—There is nothing definite in Vedic literature regarding the position of most of the Naksatras, but the later astronomy precisely locates all of them, and its statements agree on the whole satisfactorily with what is said in the earlier texts, though Weber was inclined to doubt this. The determinations adopted below are due to Whitney in his notes on the Sūrya Siddhānta. 1.Krttikās are unquestionably η Tauri, etc., the Pleiades. The names of the seven stars forming this constellation, and given above from Yajurveda texts, include three --------abhrayantī, forming clouds meghayantī, ‘making cloudy’; varsayantī, ‘causing rain’—which clearly refer to the rainy Pleiades. The word krttikā possibly means ‘web/ from the root krt, spin.’ 2. Rohinī, ‘ ruddy,’ is the name of the conspicuously reddish star, a Tauri or Aldebaran, and denotes the group of the Hyades, <* θ y 8 e Tauri. Its identification seems absolutely assured by the legend of Prajāpati in the Aitareya Brāhmana. He is there represented as pursuing his daughter with incestuous intention, and as having been shot with an arrow (Isu Trikāndā, ‘ the belt of Orion ’) by the huntsman ’ (Mrgavyādha, Sirius ’). Prajāpati is clearly Orion (Mrgaśiras being the name of the little group of stars in Orion’s head). 3.Mrgaśīrsa or Mrgaśiras, also called Invakā or Invagā, seems to be the faint stars λ, φ,1 φ2 Orionis. They are called Andhakā, * blind,’ in the śāntikalpa of the Atharvaveda, probably because of their dimness. 4.Ardrā, ‘ moist,’ is the name of the brilliant star, α Orionis. But the names by which it is styled, in the plural as Árdrās in the śāñkhāyana Grhya Sūtra and the Naksatrakalpa, and in the dual as Bāhú, in the Taittirīya Brāhmana, point to a constellation of two or more stars, and it may be noted that the corresponding Chinese Sieou includes the seven brilliant stars composing the shoulders, the belt, and the knees of Orion. 5. Punarvasu, the two that give wealth again,’ denotes the two stars, a and β Geminorum, on the heads of Castor and Pollux. The name is no doubt connected with the beneficent character of the Aśvins, who correspond to the Dioscuri. 6.Tisya or Pusya includes the somewhat faint group in the body of the Crab, 7, δ, and θ Cancri. The singular is rather curious, as primarily one star would seem to have been meant, and none of the group is at all prominent. 7. Aśresās or Aślesās, which in some texts is certainly to be read Aśresās or Aślesas, denotes δ, e, η, p, σ, and perhaps also ζ, Hydrse. The word means ‘embracer,’ a name which admirably fits the constellation. 8. Maghās, the ‘bounties,’ are the Sickle, or α, γ, ζ, μ, e Leonis. The variants Anaghā, the ‘ sinless one,’ etc.,clearly refer to the auspicious influence of the constellation. 9. 10. Phālgunī, Phalgunyau, Phalgū, Phalg-unīs, Phal- gunyas, is really a double constellation, divided into Pūrve, ‘ former,’ and Uttare, ‘latter.’ The former is δ and θ Leonis, the latter β and Leonis. According to Weber, the word denotes, like Arjunī, the variant of the Rigveda, a ‘ bright- coloured ’ constellation. 11. Hasta, ‘hand,’ is made up of the five conspicuous stars (δ> Ί, e, a, β) in Corvus, a number which the word itself suggests. According to Geldner, the ‘ five bulls ’ of the Rigveda are this constellation. 12. Citrā, ‘bright,’ is the beautiful star, a Virginis. It is mentioned in a legend of Indra in the Taittirīya Brāhmana, and in that of the ‘ two divine dogs ’ (divyau śvānau) in the śatapatha Brāhmana. 13. Svāti or Nistyā is later clearly the brilliant star Arcturus or a Bootis, its place in the north being assured by the notice in the śāntikalpa, where it is said to be ‘ ever traversing the northern way ’ (nityam uttara-mārgagam). The Taittirīya Brāhmana, however, constructs an asterismal Prajāpati, giving him Citrā (α Virginis) for head, Hasta (Corvus) for hand, the Viśākhe (α and β Librae) for thighs, and the Anurādhās (β, δ, and 7r Scorpionis) for standing place, with Nistyā for heart. But Arcturus, being 30° out, spoils this figure, while, on the other hand, the Arabic and Chinese systems have respectively, instead of Arcturus, Virginis and κ Virginis, which would well fit into the Prajāpati figure. But in spite of the force of this argument of Weber’s, Whitney is not certain that Nistyā here must mean a star in Virgo, pointing out that the name Nistyā, ‘outcast,’ suggests the separation of this Naksatra from the others in question. 14.Viśākhe is the couple of stars a and β Librae. This mansion is later called Rādhā according to the Amarakośa, and it is curious that in the Atharvaveda the expression rādho Viśākhe, the Viśākhe are prosperity,’ should occur. But probably Rādhā is merely an invention due to the name of the next Naksatra, Anurādhā, wrongly conceived as meaning that which is after or follows Rādhā.’ 15. Anūrādhās or Anurādhā, propitious,’ is β, δ, and tγ (perhaps also p) Scorpionis. 16. Rohinī, ‘ ruddy ’; Jyesthaghnī, * slaying the eldest ’; or Jyesthā, ‘eldest,’ is the name of the constellation σ, α, and τ Scorpionis, of which the central star, a, is the brilliant reddish Antares (or Cor Scorpionis).
17.Vicrtau, ‘ the two releasers ’; Mūla, ‘ root or Mūla- barhanī, ‘ uprooting,’ denote primarily λ and v at the extremity of the tail of the Scorpion, but including also the nine or eleven stars from e to v.
18.19. Asādhās (‘ unconquered ’), distinguished as Pūrvās, ‘ former,’ and Uttarās, ‘ latter,’ are really two constellations, of which the former is composed of γ, δ, e, and η Sagittarii, or of 8 and e only, and the latter of θ, σ, t, and ξ Sagittarii, or of two, σ and ζ, only. It is probable that originally only four stars forming a square were meant as included in the whole constellation —viz., σ and f, with 8 and e.
20. Abhijit is the brilliant star a Lyrse with its two companions e and ζ. Its location in 6o° north latitude is completely discordant with the position of the corresponding Arabian and Chinese asterisms. This fact is considered by Oldenberg to support the view that it was a later addition to the system; its occurrence, however, as early as the Maitrāyanī Samhitā, which he does not note, somewhat invalidates that view. In the Taittirīya Brāhmana Abhijit is said to be ‘over Asādhās, under śronā,’ which Weber held to refer to its position in space, inferring thence that its Vedic position corresponded to that of the Arab Manāzil and the Chinese Sieou—viz., a, β Capricorni. But Whitney argues effectively that the words ‘ over ’ and ‘ under ’ really refer to the place of Abhijit in the list, ‘ after ’ Asādhās and ‘ before ’ Sronā.
21. Sronā, ‘lame,’ or Sravana, ‘ ear,’ denotes the bright star a Aquilai with β below and 7 above it. Weber very need- lessly thinks that the name Sravana suggested two ears and the head between. It is quite out of correspondence with the Manāzil and the Sieou, and is clearly an Indian invention.
22. śravisthās, ‘ most famous,’ or later Dhanisthās, ‘most wealthy,’ is the diamond-shaped group, α, β, δ, and 7, in the Dolphin, perhaps also ζ in the same constellation. Like the preceding Naksatra, it is out of harmony with the Manāzil and Sieou. 23. Satabhisaj or śatabhisa, ‘having a hundred physicians,’ seems to be λ Aquarii with the others around it vaguely conceived as numbering a hundred.
24. 25. Prostha-padās (fem. plur.), ‘ feet of a stool,’ or later Bhadra-padās,100 ‘auspicious feet,’ a double asterism forming a square, the former (pūrva) consisting of a and β Pegasi, the latter (uttara) of γ Pegasi and a Andromedse.
26. Revatī, ‘ wealthy,’ denotes a large number of stars (later 32), of which ζ Piscium, close upon the ecliptic where it was crossed by the equator of about 570 a.d., is given as the southernmost. 27. Aśva-yujau, ‘the two horse-harnessers,’ denotes the stars β and ζ Arietis. Aśvinyau101 and Aśvinī102 are later names. 28. Apabharanīs, Bharanīs, or Bharanyas, ‘ the bearers,’ is the name of the small triangle in the northern part of the Ram known as Musca or 35, 39, and 41 Arietis. The Naksatras and the Months.—In the Brāhmanas the Naksatra names are regularly used to denote dates. This is done in two ways. The name, if not already a feminine, may be turned into a feminine and compounded with pūrna-māsa, ‘the full moon,’ as in Tisyā-pūrnamāsa, ‘the full moon in the Naksatra Tisya.’103 Much more often, however, it is turned into a derivative adjective, used with paurnamāsī, ‘the full moon (night)/ or with amāvāsyā, ‘the new moon (night)/ as in Phālgunī paurnamāsl, ‘the full-moon night in the Naksatra Phālgunī’;104 or, as is usual in the Sūtras, the Naksatra adjective alone is used to denote the full-moon night. The month itself is called by a name derived105 from that of a Naksatra, but only Phālguna,106 Caitra,107 Vaiśākha,108 Taisya,109 Māgha110 occur in the Brāhmanas, the complete list later being Phālguna, Caitra, Vaiśākha, Jyaistha, Asādha, Srāvana, Prausthapada, Aśvayuja, Kārttika, Mārgaśīrsa, Taisya, Māgha. Strictly speaking, these should be lunar months, but the use of a lunar year was clearly very restricted: we have seen that as early as the Taittirīya Brāhmana there was a tendency to equate lunar months with the twelve months of thirty days which made up the solar year (see Māsa). The Naksatras and Chronology.—(i) An endeavour has been made to ascertain from the names of the months the period at which the systematic employment of those names was intro¬duced. Sir William Jones111 refers to this possibility, and Bentley, by the gratuitous assumption that śrāvana always marked the summer solstice, concluded that the names of the months did not date before b.c. Ii8I. Weber112 considered that there was a possibility of fixing a date by this means, but Whitney113 has convincingly shown that it is an impossible feat, and Thibaut114 concurs in this view. Twelve became fixed as the number of the months because of the desire, evident in the Brāhmanas, somehow or other to harmonize lunar with solar time; but the selection of twelve Naksatras out of twenty-seven as connected with the night of full moon can have no chronological significance, because full moon at no period occurred in those twelve only, but has at all periods occurred in every one of the twenty-seven at regularly recurrent intervals. (2) All the lists of the Naksatras begin with Krttikās. It is only fair to suppose that there was some special reason for this fact. Now the later list of the Naksatras begins with Aśvinī, and it was unquestionably rearranged because at the time of its adoption the vernal equinox coincided with the star ζ Piscium on the border of Revatī and Aśvinī, say in the course of the sixth century A.D. Weber has therefore accepted the view that the Krttikās were chosen for a similar reason, and the date at which that Naksatra coincided with the vernal equinox has been estimated at some period in the third millennium B.C. A very grave objection to this view is its assumption that the sun, and not the moon, was then regarded as connected with the Naksatras; and both Thibaut and Oldenberg have pronounced decidedly against the idea of connecting the equinox with the Krttikās. Jacobi has contended that in the Rigveda the commencement of the rains and the summer solstice mark the beginning of the new year and the end of the old, and that further the new year began with the summer solstice in Phālgunī.121 He has also referred to the distinction of the two sets of Deva and Yama Naksatras in the Taittirīya Brāhmana as supporting his view of the connexion of the sun and the Naksatras. But this view is far from satisfactory: the Rigveda passages cannot yield the sense required except by translating the word dvādaśa123 as 4 the twelfth (month) * instead of consisting of twelve parts,’ that is, ‘year/ the accepted interpretation; and the division of the Naksatras is not at all satisfactorily explained by a supposed connexion with the sun. It may further be mentioned that even if the Naksatra of Krttikās be deemed to have been chosen because of its coincidence with the vernal equinox, both Whitney and Thibaut are pre¬pared to regard it as no more than a careless variant of the date given by the Jyotisa, which puts the winter solstice in Māgha. (3) The winter solstice in Māgha is assured by a Brāhmana text, for the Kausītaki Brāhmana12® expressly places it in the new moon of Māgha (māghasyāmāυāsyāyām). It is not very important whether we take this with the commentators as the new moon in the middle of a month commencing with the day after full moon in Taisa, or, which is much more likely, as the new moon beginning the month and preceding full moon in Māgha. The datum gives a certain possibility of fixing an epoch in the following way. If the end of Revatī marked the vernal equinox at one period, then the precession of the equinoxes would enable us to calculate at what point of time the vernal equinox was in a position corresponding to the winter solstice in Māgha, when the solstitial colure cut the ecliptic at the beginning of Sravisthās. This would be, on the strict theory, in the third quarter of Bharanī, 6f asterisms removed from Sravisthās, and the difference between that and the beginning of Aśvinī = if asterisms = 23 (27 asterisms being = 360°). Taking, the starting-point at 499 a.d., the assured period of Varāha Mihira, Jones arrived at the date B.C. 1181 for the vernal equinox corresponding to the winter solstice in Māgha—that is, on the basis of ι° = 72 years as the precession. Pratt arrived at precisely the same date, taking the same rate of precession and adopting as his basis the ascertained position in the Siddhantas of the junction star of Maghā, a Leonis or Regulus. Davis and Colebrooke arrived at a different date, B.C. 1391, by taking as the basis of their calculation the junction star of Citrā, which happens to be of uncertain position, varying as much as 30 in the different textbooks. But though the twelfth century has received a certain currency as the epoch of the observation in the Jyotisa, it is of very doubtful value. As Whitney points out, it is impossible to say that the earlier asterisms coincided in position with the later asterisms of 13J0 extent each. They were not chosen as equal divisions, but as groups of stars which stood in conjunction with the moon; and the result of subsequently making them strictly equal divisions was to throw the principal stars of the later groups altogether out of their asterisms. Nor can we say that the star ζ Piscium early formed the eastern boundary of Revatī; it may possibly not even have been in that asterism at all, for it is far remote from the Chinese and Arabic asterisms corresponding to Revatī. Added to all this, and to the uncertainty of the starting-point— 582 a.d., 560 a.d., or 491 a.d. being variants —is the fact that the place of the equinox is not a matter accurately determin¬able by mere observation, and that the Hindu astronomers of the Vedic period cannot be deemed to have been very accurate observers, since they made no precise determination of the number of days of the year, which even in the Jyotisa they do not determine more precisely than as 366 days, and even the Sūrya Siddhānta136 does not know the precession of the equinoxes. It is therefore only fair to allow a thousand years for possible errors,137 and the only probable conclusion to be drawn from the datum of the Kausītaki Brāhmana is that it was recording an observation which must have been made some centuries B.C., in itself a result quite in harmony with the probable date of the Brāhmana literature,138 say B.C. 800-600. (4) Another chronological argument has been derived from the fact that there is a considerable amount of evidence for Phālguna having been regarded as the beginning of the year, since the full moon in Phālgunī is often described as the ‘ mouth (mukham) of the year.’139 Jacobi140 considers that this was due to the fact that the year was reckoned from the winter solstice, which would coincide with the month of Phālguna about B.C. 4000. Oldenberg and Thibaut, on the other hand, maintain that the choice of Phālguna as the ‘ mouth ’ of the year was due to its being the first month of spring. This view is favoured by the fact that there is distinct evidence of the correspondence of Phālguna and the beginning of spring : as we have seen above in the Kausītaki Brāhmana, the new moon in Māgha is placed at the winter solstice, which puts the full moon of Phālgunī at a month and a half after the winter solstice, or in the first week of February, a date not in itself improbable for about B.C. 800, and corresponding with the February 7 of the veris initium in the Roman Calendar. This fact accords with the only natural division of the year into three periods of four months, as the rainy season lasts from June 7-10 to October 7-10, and it is certain that the second set of four months dates from the beginning of the rains (see Cāturmāsya). Tilak, on the other hand, holds that the winter solstice coincided with Māghī full moon at the time of the Taittirīya Samhitā (b.c. 2350), and had coincided with Phālgunī and Caitrī in early periods—viz., B.C. 4000-2500, and B.C. 6000¬4000. (5) The passages of the Taittirīya Samhitā and the Pañca¬vimśa Brāhmana, which treat the full moon in Phālguna as the beginning of the year, give as an alternative the full moon in Caitra. Probably the latter month was chosen so as to secure that the initial day should fall well within the season of spring, and was not, as Jacobi believes, a relic of a period when the winter solstice corresponded with Caitra. Another alternative is the Ekāstakā, interpreted by the commentators as the eighth day after the full moon in Maghās, a time which might, as being the last quarter of the waning half of the old year, well be considered as representing the end of the year. A fourth alternative is the fourth day before full moon; the full moon meant must be that of Caitra, as Álekhana quoted by Ápastamba held, not of Māgha, as Asmarathya, Laugāksi and the Mīmāmsists believed, and as Tilak believes. (6) Others, again, according to the Grhya ritual, began the year with the month Mārgaśīrsa, as is shown by its other name Agrahāyana (‘ belonging to the commencement of the year ’). Jacobi and Tilak think that this one denoted the autumn equinox in Mrgaśiras, corresponding to the winter solstice in Phālgunī. But, as Thibaut shows clearly, it was selected as the beginning of a year that was taken to commence with autumn, just as some took the spring to commence with Caitra instead of Phālguna. (7) Jacobi has also argued, with the support of Buhler, from the terms given for the beginning of Vedic study in the Grhya Sūtras, on the principle that study commenced with the rains (as in the Buddhist vassā) which mark the summer solstice. He concludes that if Bhādrapada appears as the date of commencing study in some texts, it was fixed thus because at one time Prosthapadās (the early name of Bhadra- padās) coincided with the summer solstice, this having been the case when the winter solstice was in Phālguna. But Whitney155 has pointed out that this argument is utterly illegitimate; we cannot say that there was any necessary connexion between the rains and learning—a month like Srāvana might be preferred because of its connexion with the word Sravana, 4 ear ’—and in view of the precession of the equinoxes, we must assume that Bhādrapada was kept because of its traditional coincidence with the beginning of the rains after it had ceased actually so to coincide. the other astronomical phenomena; the discovery of a series of 27 lunar mansions by them would therefore be rather surprising. On the other hand, the nature of such an operation is not very complicated ; it consists merely in selecting a star or a star group with which the moon is in conjunction. It is thus impossible a priori to deny that the Vedic Indians could have invented for themselves a lunar Zodiac. But the question is complicated by the fact that there exist two similar sets of 28 stars or star groups in Arabia and in China, the Manāzil and the Sieou. The use of the Manāzil in Arabia is consistent and effective ; the calendar is regulated by them, and the position of the asterisms corresponds best with the positions required for a lunar Zodiac. The Indians might therefore have borrowed the system from Arabia, but that is a mere possibility, because the evidence for the existence of the Manāzil is long posterior to that for the existence of the Naksatras, while again the Mazzaroth or Mazzaloth of the Old Testament may really be the lunar mansions. That the Arabian system is borrowed from India, as Burgess held, is, on the other hand, not at all probable. Biot, the eminent Chinese scholar, in a series of papers published by him between. 1839 and 1861, attempted to prove the derivation of the Naksatra from the Chinese Sieou. The latter he did not regard as being in origin lunar mansions at all. He thought that they were equatorial stars used, as in modern astronomy, as a standard to which planets or other stars observed in the neighbourhood can be referred; they were, as regards twenty-four of them, selected about B.C. 2357 on account of their proximity to the equator, and of their having the same right ascension as certain circumpolar stars which had attracted the attention of Chinese observers. Four more were added in B.C. IIOO in order to mark the equinoxes and solstices of the period. He held that the list of stars commenced with Mao (= Krttikās), which was at the vernal equinox in B.C. 2357. Weber, in an elaborate essay of i860, disputed this theory, and endeavoured to show that the Chinese literary evidence for the Sieou was late, dating not even from before the third century B.C. The last point does not appear to be correct, but his objections against the basis of Biot’s theory were rein¬forced by Whitney, who insisted that Biot’s supposition of the Sieou’s not having been ultimately derived from a system of lunar mansions, was untenable. This is admitted by the latest defender of the hypothesis of borrowing from China, Lśopold de Saussure, , but his arguments in favour of a Chinese origin for the Indian lunar mansions have been refuted by Oldenberg, who has also pointed out that the series does not begin with Mao ( = Krttikās). There remains only the possibility that a common source for all the three sets—Naksatra, Manāzil, and Sieou—may be found in Babylonia. Hommel has endeavoured to show that recent research has established in Babylonia the existence of a lunar zodiac of twenty-four members headed by the Pleiades ( = Krttikās); but Thibaut’s researches are not favourable to this claim. On the other hand, Weber, Whitney, Zimmer, and Oldenberg all incline to the view that in Babylonia is to be found the origin of the system, and this must for the present be regarded as the most probable view, for there are other traces of Babylonian influence in Vedic literature, such as the legend of the flood, perhaps the Adityas, and possibly the word Manā.
Is the later name of the people called Krivi in the Rigveda. The Pañcālas are rarely referred to except in connexion with the Kurus, and the kings of the Kuru-Pañcālas are mentioned in the Aitareya Brāhmana. In the Kāthaka Samhitā the Pañcālas appear as the people of Keśin Dālbhya. In the Upanisads and later the Brahmins of the Pañcālas figure as taking part in philosophical and philological discussions. The Samhitopanisad Brāhmana makes mention of the Prācya-Pāñcālas. The Pañcālas, no doubt, included other tribes besides the Krivis. The name seems to refer to five tribes, and it has been suggested that the Pañcālas represent the five tribes of the Rigveda, but the suggestion is not very probable. There is no trace in Vedic literature of the Epic division of the Pañcālas into northern (uttara) and southern (daksina). The Satapatha Brāhmana mentions their town Paricakrā; other towns to which allusion seems to be made were Kāmpīla and Kauśāmbī. Of their kings and chiefs, as distinguished from kings of the Kuru-Pañcālas, we hear of Kraivya, Durmukha, Pravāhana Jaivali, and Sona.
Means animal ’ generally, including man. There is frequent mention of the five sacrificial animalsthe horse, the cow, the sheep, the goat, and man. Seven such domestic animals are spoken of in the Atharvaveda and later; probably, as Whitney observes, merely as a sacred mystic number, not, as the commentator explains, the usual five with the ass and the camel added. Animals are also referred to as ubhayadaηt and anyatodant. They are further6 classified as those which take hold with the hand (hastādānāh), man (purusa) telephant (hastiri), and ape (markata), and those which grasp by the mouth (mukhādānāh). Another division is that of biped (dvipād) and quadruped (catuspād). Man is a biped; he is the first (pro- thama) of the beasts ; he alone of animals lives a hundred years (śatāyus), and he is king of the animals. He possesses speech (vāc) in conjunction with the other animals. In the Aitareya Aranyaka an elaborate distinction is drawn between vegetables, animals, and man in point of intellect.Of animals apart from man a threefold division is offered in the Rigveda into those of the air (υāyavya), those of the jungle (<āranya), and those of the village (grāmya), or tame animals. The division into āranya and grāmya animals is quite common. In the Yajurveda Samhitās is found a division into eka-śapha, ‘ whole-hoofed ’; ksudra, ‘small’; and āranya, ‘ wild,’ the two former classes denoting the tame animals. The horse and the ass are eka-śapha ; the ksudra are the sheep, the goat, and the ox: this distinction being parallel to that of ubhayadant and anyatodant. Zimmer sees in a passage of the Atharvaveda a division of wild animals (āranya) into five classes: those of the jungle described as the ‘dread beasts which are in the wood ’ (tnrgā bhīmā vane hitāh) ; winged creatures, represented by the Hamsa, ‘ gander,’ Suparna, ‘eagle,’ Sakuna, ‘bird’; amphibia—Simśumāra, ‘alligator,’ and Ajagara, ‘crocodile’ (?); ‘fish,’ Purīkaya, Jasa, and Matsya; insects and worms (described as rajasāh). But this division is more ingenious than probable, and it is ignored by both Bloomfield and Whitney.
Means a ‘ king of the Pañcāla people,’ and is applied to Durmukha in the Aitareya Brāhmana and to śona in the śatapatha Brāhmana. The term is also found in the Jaiminīya Upanisad Brāhmana. See also Pañcāla.
Is mentioned in an obscure hymn of the Rigveda as a priest; in two hymns of the tenth Maṇdala he is definitely a Rṣi. He is also mentioned in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa as having consecrated Durmukha Pāñeāla, and is called Vāmadeva’s son in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa. In the Pañcavimśa Brāhmaṇa he appears as Vāmneya, ‘ descendant of Vāmnī.’ Hopkins’ suggestion that he may have been there thought of as Vāmadevya also is quite probable.
‘Ape,’ is enumerated in the list of victims at the Aśvamedha (‘ horse sacrifice ’) in the Yajurveda Samhitās. It is classified in the same Samhitās with man and the elephant as ‘ taking hold by the hand ’ (hastādāna) instead of ‘ taking hold by the mouth’ (mukhādāna). The animal is mentioned several times elsewhere also. Cf, Puruṣa Hastin, Mayu.
‘Body,’ is a word of frequent occurrence in Vedic literature. The interest of the Vedic Indians seems early to have been attracted to the consideration of questions connected with the anatomy of the body. Thus a hymn of the Atharvaveda enumerates many parts of the body with some approach to accuracy and orderly arrangement. It mentions the heels (pārsnf), the flesh (māmsa), the ankle-bones (gulphau), the fingers (angulīh), the apertures (kha), the two metatarsi (uchlakau), the tarsus (pratisthā), the two knee-caps (astliī- vantau), the two legs {janghe), the two knee-joints (jānunoh sandhī). Then comes above the two knees (jānū) the foursided (catuçtaya), pliant (śithira) trunk (kabandha). The two hips (śronī) and the two thighs (ūrū) are the props of the frame (ktisindha). Next come the breast-bone (uras), the cervical cartilages (grīvāh), the two breast pieces (stanau), the two shoulder-blades (/kaphodau), the neck-bones (skandhau), and the backbones (prstīh), the collar-bones (amsau), the arms (bāhu), the seven apertures in the head (sapta khāni śīrsani), the ears (karnau), the nostrils (nāsike), the eyes (caksanī), the mouth (mukha), the jaws (hanū), the tongue (jihvā), the brain (mas- tiska), the forehead (lalāta), the facial bone (kakātikā), the cranium (kapāla), and the structure of the jaws (cityā hanvoh). This system presents marked similarities with the later system of Caraka and Suśruta,4 which render certain the names ascribed to the several terms by Hoernle. Kaphodau, which is variously read in the manuscripts,5 is rendered ‘ collar-bone ’ by Whitney, but ‘ elbow ’ in the St. Petersburg Dictionary. Skandha in the plural regularly denotes 'neck-bones,’ or, more precisely, ‘cervical vertebrae,’ a part denoted also by usnihā in the plural. Prsii denotes not * rib,’ which is parśu, but a transverse process of a vertebra, and so the vertebra itself, there being in the truncal portion of the spinal column seventeen vertebrae and thirty-four transverse processes. The vertebrae are also denoted by kīkasā in the plural, which sometimes is limited to the upper portion of the vertebral column, sometimes to the thoracic portion of the spine. Anūka also denotes the vertebral column, or more specially the lumbar or thoracic portion of the spine; it is said in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa that there are twenty transverse processes in the lumbar spine (udara) and thirty-two in the thoracic, which gives twenty-six vertebrae, the true number (but the modern division is seven cervical, twelve thoracic, five lumbar, and two false—the sacrum and the coccyx). The vertebral column is also denoted by karūkara, which, however, is usually found in the plural denoting the transverse processes of the vertebrae, a sense expressed also by kuntāpa. Grīvā, in the plural, denotes cervical vertebrae, the number seven being given by the Satapatha Brāhmana, but usually the word simply means windpipe, or, more accurately, the cartilaginous rings under the skin. Jatru, also in the plural, denotes the cervical cartilages, or possibly the costal cartilages, which are certainly so called in the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, where their number is given as eight. Bhamsas, which occurs thrice in the Atharvaveda, seems to denote the pubic bone or arch rather than the ‘buttocks’ or ‘fundament,’ as Whitney takes it. In the śatapatha Brāhmaṇa the number of bones in the the human body is given as 360. The number of the bones of the head and trunk are given in another passage as follows: The head is threefold, consisting of skin (tvac), bone (1asthi), brain (matiska); the neck has 15 bones : 14 transverse processes (karūkara) and the strength (vīrya)—i.e., the bone of the centre regarded as one—as the 15th ; the breast has 17: 16 cervical cartilages (Jatru), and the sternum (uras) as the 17th ; the abdominal portion of the spine has 21 : 20 transverse processes (kimtāpa), and the abdominal portion (udara) as the 21st; the two sides have 27: 26 ribs (parśu), and the two sides as the 27th; the thoracic portion of the spine (anūka) has 33: 32 transverse processes, and the thoracic portion as 33rd. There are several enumerations of the parts of the body, not merely of the skeleton, in the Yajurveda Samhitās. They include the hair (lomāni), skin (tvac), flesh (māinsá), bone (1asthi), marrow (majjan), liver (yakrt), lungs (kloman), kidneys (matasne), gall (pitta), entrails (āntrāni), bowels (gudāh), spleen (ptīhan), navel (nābht), belly (udara), rectum (vanisthu), womb (yoni), penis (plāśi and śepa), face (mukha), head (śiras), tongue (jihvā), mouth (āsan), rump (pāyu), leech (vāla), eye (caksus), eyelashes (paksmāni), eyebrows (utāni), nose (was), breath (iiyāna), nose-hairs (nasyāni), ears (karnau), brows (bhrū), body or trunk (ātman), waist (upastha), hair on the face (śmaśrūni), and on the head (keśāh). Another enumeration gives śiras, mukha, keśāh, śmaśrūni, prāna (breath), caksus, śrotra (ear), jihvā, vāc (speech), manas (mind), arigulik, añgāni (limbs), bāhū, hastau (hands), karnau, ātmā, uras (sternum), prstllj, (vertebrae), udara, amsau, grīvāh, śronī, ūrū, aratnī (elbows), jānūni, nūbhi, pāyu, bhasat (fundament), āndau (testicles), pasas (membrum virile), jañghā, pad (foot), lomāni, tvac, māmsa, asthi, majjan. Another set of names includes vanisthu, purītat (pericardium), lomāni, tvac, lohita (blood), medas (fat), māmsāni, snāvāni (sinews), asthīni, majjānah, ret as (semen), pāyu, kośya (flesh near the heart), pārśvya (intercostal flesh), etc. The bones of the skeleton of the horse are enumerated in the Yajurveda Samhitās. In the Aitareya Araṇyaka the human body is regarded as made up of one hundred and one items ; there are four parts, each of twenty-five members, with the trunk as one hundred and first. In the two upper parts there are five four-jointed fingers, two kakçasī (of uncertain meaning), the arm (dos), the collar-bone (akça), and the shoulder-blade (artisa-phalaka). In the two lower portions there are five four-jointed toes, the thigh, the leg, and three articulations, according to Sāyaṇa’s commentary. The śānkhāyana Araṇyaka enumerates three bones in the head, three joints (parvāni) in the neck, the collar-bone {akṣa), three joints in the fingers, and twenty-one transverse processes in the spine (anūka).sg The Maitrāyaṇī Samhitā enumerates four constituents in the head {prāna, caksns, śrotra, vāc), but there are many variations, the number going up to twelve on one calculation. In the Taittirīya Upaniṣad an enumeration is given consisting of carma (skin), māinsa, snāvan, asthi, and majjan; the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa has lomāni, mānμa, tvac, asthi, majjan, and the Aitareya Araṇyaka couples majjānah, snāvāni, and asthīni. Other terms relating to the body are kañkūsa, perhaps a part of the ear, yoni (female organ), kaksa (armpit), Danta (tooth), nakha (nail), prapada (forepart of the foot), hallks'tia (gall).
‘Having a hand,’ with Mrga, ‘beast,’ denotes in the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda the ‘elephant.’ Later the adj'ective alone comes to mean ‘elephant.’ The animal was famed for its strength as well as its virility. It is mentioned with man and monkey as one of the beasts that take hold by the hand (hastādāna), as opposed to those that take hold by the mouth (mukhādāna). It was tamed, as the expression Hastipa,* elephant-keeper,’ shows, and tame elephants were used to catch others (see Vāraṇa). But there is no trace of its use in war, though Ktesias and Megasthenes both record such use for their times. The Atharvaveda alludes to its being pestered by mosquitoes.
by seeing the faces (when a man sees the beautiful face of a woman and the woman sees the strong build of the man's body, they always desire one another)
by seeing the faces (when a man sees the beautiful face of a woman and the woman sees the strong build of the man's body, they always desire one another)
by seeing the faces (when a man sees the beautiful face of a woman and the woman sees the strong build of the man's body, they always desire one another)
noun (neuter) (in alg.) the first term or initial quantity of a progression (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
(in dram.) the original cause or source of the action (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
(in geom.) the side opposite to the base (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a direction (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
beginning (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
best (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
cause (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
commencement (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
copper (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
countenance (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
entrance into or egress out of (gen. or comp.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
face (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
front (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
head (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
introduction (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
occasion of (gen. or comp.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
opening aperture (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
principal (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
quarter (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
rock salt (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
snout or muzzle of an animal (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
source (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the beak of a bird (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the chief (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the edge (of an axe) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the fore part (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the mouth (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the mouth or embouchure (of a river) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the mouth or spout of a vessel (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the nipple (of a breast) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the summit (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the surface (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the upper part (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the Veda (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
tip or point of anything (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
top (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
upper side (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
van (of an army) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a kind of jāraṇā
(bei kānta: Polarität?) Frequency rank 117/72933
noun (neuter) a lid (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
cover (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
introduction (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
preface (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the fifth change which takes place in warm milk when mixed with Takra (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a blow on the face (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a face distorted by sickness (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a white-flowering variety of Moringa Pterygosperma
grimace (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
wry face (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a conch shell (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a crow (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a leader (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
chief (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a Nāga (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a rogue (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
principal (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective expressive of (comp.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
foul-mouthed (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
garrulous (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
loquacious (said also of birds and bees) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noisy (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
scurrilous (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
scurrilous speaking harshly or abusively (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
sound resonant or eloquent with (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
talkative (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
tinkling (as an anklet etc.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective rendered noisy. made resonant (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
ringing (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
sounding (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
indeclinable at the head (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
by means of the mouth (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
from before (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
from or at the mouth (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
in the front (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective possessing a mouth (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
[alchemy: qualification of the samukhajāraṇā]
mercury ready for grāsa Frequency rank 19858/72933
noun (neuter) (in the worship of Śiva) a kind of musical sound made with the mouth (by striking it with the hand) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
any musical instrument sounded with the mouth (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) pungency (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
sharp or pungent flavour (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a kind of plant Frequency rank 62304/72933
noun (masculine) a Brāhmaṇa (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a deity (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a tonic medicine (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a bug (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
Plumbago Zeylanica (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
Semicarpus Anacardium (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective having the face downwards (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
headlong (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
upside down (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) an arrow (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a Dānava (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a mountain (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a Kiṃnara (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a mythical being (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a people (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective about to (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
expecting (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
looking up or at (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
near to (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
raising the face (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
waiting for (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective a pregnant female (so called because the embryo has its face turned in an opposite direction to that of the mother) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a particular form of demon (assumed by the departed spirit of a Brāhman who eats ejected food) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a descendant of Ikṣvāku (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a Rakṣas (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of an ape (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (neuter) introduction to a tale (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of the second Lambaka or book of the Kathāsaritsāgara (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (neuter) a cloth-bag for containing a rosary (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a house built unevenly (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a particular method of sitting (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
plastering (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
smearing with (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a crocodile (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a hole in a wall of a peculiar shape made by thieves (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a kind of musical instrument (sort of horn or trumpet ?) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a king (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a son of Mātali (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a son of the treasurer of king Vatsa (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of an attendant of the 1st Arhat of the present Avasarpiṇī (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of one of Śiva's attendants (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) name of a pupil of Śamīka (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a sage (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of the Purohita of king Ugrasena (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a kind of demon (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a Brahmarākṣasa (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a kind of viḍa Frequency rank 21343/72933
noun (masculine) a kind of snake (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a monkey; brother-in-law of Sugrīva (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a Nāga (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a Yakṣa (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (neuter) a cave representing a mouth (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a mouth like a cave (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the opening of a cave (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (neuter) any quarter or point of the heavens (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
place (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
spot (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective abusive (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
foul-mouthed (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
scurrilous (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
ugly-faced (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a horse (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a serpent (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a general of the Asura Mahisha (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a monkey (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a prince of the Pañcālas (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a Rakṣas (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a serpent-demon (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a son of Dhṛtarāṣṭra (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a son of Suhotra
name of a Yakṣa (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of an astronomer (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of the 29th year of the cycle of Jupiter (lasting 60 years) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (neuter) a town which extends along the banks of a river
the chief of 400 villages (droṇamukhya) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the end of a valley (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a kind of Manes (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a kind of water-bird (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a species of rice (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of Śiva (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) nāṇḍīpaṭa (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a class of deceased ancestors to whom a particular Śrāddha is offered (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a lion (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
an arrow with 5 points (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of Śiva (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective averse from (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
avoiding (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
flying from (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
having the face turned away or averted (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
hostile to (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
regardless of (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
shunning (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
turning the back upon (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
unfavourable (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
unkind (as fate etc.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective facing (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
present (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
standing before the face (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
towards (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (neuter) (in dram.) a secondary plot or incident which hastens or retards the catastrophe (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
an answer (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the Epitasis (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the reflected image of the face (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective accompanied by or with (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
chief (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
facing (acc.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
first (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
foremost (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
having as foremost or chief (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
headed or preceded by (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
honourable (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
most excellent (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
principal (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
respectable (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
turning the face towards (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (neuter) commencement (of a chapter) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the mouth (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the present (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the same time (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
time being (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
indeclinable at the head of (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
before (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
before all others (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
before the face of (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
first (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
in front of (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
in the first place (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
opposite to (with gen. or ifc.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective coming out of the mouth (opp. to antarmū) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
indifferent to (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
one who has his mind directed to external things (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
one who turn his face away (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a crocodile (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a Jina (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a man (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a Rākṣasa
name of Śiva
rākṣasavaktra Frequency rank 22007/72933
adjective abstaining or desisting from (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adverse (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
averse or opposed to (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
disappointed (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
downcast (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
having the face averted (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
hostile (as fate) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
indifferent to (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
lacking (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
turned backwards (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
turning away from (gen.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
wanting (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
without a mukha Frequency rank 3924/72933
noun (masculine) a battle (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a bee (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a fool (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
an arrow (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a hare (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
war (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) name of a medical author (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the 7th (ur 41st) year of Jupiter's cycle of 60 years (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the word Śrī written on the back of a letter (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) name of a Bodhisattva (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a king and of various other persons (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of Skanda or Kārttikeya (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of Śiva Frequency rank 6826/72933
adjective eloquent (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
loquacious (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
talkative (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
img/alchemy.bmp Frequency rank 4625/72933
adjective adapted to circumstances (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
before (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
before the eyes (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
being about to begin or at the beginning of (comp.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
being face to face or in front of or opposite to (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
confronting (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
directed or turned towards (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
facing (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
fit (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
fronting (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
inclined or favourable to (gen. or comp.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
intent upon (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
opposite (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
present (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
propitious (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
suitable (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
with the mouth or face (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) a Brāhman (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a kind of military array (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of Agni (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a work (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of Brahmā (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of Śiva (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
Svarga (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
soul (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
spirit (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the heaven (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective complete (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
facing in all direction (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
turned every where (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
unlimited (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine) name of a scholar (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of one of Śiva's attendants (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
vāsā Gendarussa vulgaris Frequency rank 31010/72933
noun (masculine) a kind of herb (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a learned man or teacher (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a particular gregarious bird (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a class of gods (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a Haṃsa (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a king (who perished through want of humility) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a king of the Kiṃnaras (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a monkey (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a serpent-demon (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a son of Droṇa (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a son of Garuḍa (a mythical bird) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of a son of Suhotra
name of a Ṛṣi (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of an Asura (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of Gaṇeśa (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
name of Śiva (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
Ocimum Basilicum Pilosum and another species (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
Ocimum basilicum Linn. (G.J. Meulenbeld (1974), 608)
Ocimum gratissimum Linn. (G.J. Meulenbeld (1974), 608) Frequency rank 6107/72933
noun (neuter) a bright face (instr. "cheerfully") (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a good or beautiful mouth (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a kind of building (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the mark or scratch of a finger-nail (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
adjective (alchemy)
cheerful (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
fair-faced (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
favourable (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
gracious (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
handsome (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
having a good entrance (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
kind to (gen.) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
well pointed (as an arrow) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (neuter) a covered way leading to a city gate (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a division or company of an army (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a kind of town with a garrison
the van of an army (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
noun (masculine neuter) a bird (or a particular bird or name of a bird) (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a diamond
a gnat or some other stinging insect (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a kind of alchemical preparation
a kind of Kuśa grass (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
a particular hell
a particular position of the hands (Monier-Williams, Sir M. (1988))
the point of a needle
vajra
[surgery] a kind of incision Frequency rank 14576/72933
